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8.      Bibliography

Cock. A, May 2004, ‘Poverty reduction as the justification for forest destruction: the case of the Tum Ring rubber plantation development.’ Watershed Magazine, Vol. 9 No.3 March – June 2004, pp 30-39. 

Evans, Tom D., Hout Piseth, Phet Phaktra, and Hang Mary, A study of resin-tapping and livelihoods in southern Mondulkiri, Cambodia, with implications for conservation and forest management 

Ironside, J. 1997, ‘Report on the Conference on Indigenous Strategies for the Intensification of Shifting Cultivation in Southeast Asia, Bogor, Indonesia, 23-27 June 1997’, IDRC/UNDP-CARERE, Ratanakiri Province. Cambodia. 

Leuprecht, P. COHCHR November 2004 ‘Land concessions for economic purposes in Cambodia: A human rights perspective.’  

Toeur, V. Dec. 2004, ‘A Study of the Impacts of Rubber Plantation Development in Tum Ring Commune, Sandan District, Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia’, National University of Singapore. 

Tola, P. and McKinney, B. ‘Trading Forest Products in Cambodia: Challenges, Threats and Opportunities for Resin.’ Working Paper 28, Cambodia Development Research Institute. 

Appendix 1

Terms of Reference –

A Study of the Economic, Social, and Environmental Impacts of Rubber Plantation Development: A Livelihood Analysis in Mean Rith Commune, Kompong Thom

Background

In August 2000, the Cambodian Government announced a policy of promoting "family-scale rubber plantations" in order to contribute to Cambodia's rural development and ordered the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries to facilitate the development of rubber plantations throughout Cambodia.[1]  Family scale development projects were intended by the Cambodian Government to be voluntary projects which would ensure livelihood security, land tenure, and technical assistance for those participating in the schemes. 

According to sources within the Kompong Thom Provincial Forest Department, Mean Rith commune, in Sandan District, has been slated for future rubber plantation development.  This information is a cause for concern due to recent developments in neighboring Tum Ring Commune, where the policy of rubber plantation promotion has already been implemented. 

In Tum Ring, a 6,200 hectare rubber concession was awarded to the Chup Rubber Plantation Company in February 2001, by excising land from three forest concessions in the area.  Subsequently, the forests in the commune were cleared, with blatant disregard for the approximately 2000 people inhabiting 8 villages in the commune, whose livelihoods were dependent on shifting agriculture on forestland plots, and NTFP collection.  Many villagers had traditional claims to high-value resin trees throughout the surrounding forest.  While families in Tum Ring have been allocated land (3ha) for "family-scale rubber plantations", the forced change in livelihood strategy suggests a disastrous adjustment period for local people, and long-term dependence on the Chup company and fluctuating international market prices for rubber.  In Tum Ring, the community was poorly prepared or even aware of the consequences of rubber development in their commune.

The Minister of Agriculture has stated an intention to further expand rubber plantation developments in the Prey Long forest area.[2][1]  The Prey Long forest, bordering Kampong Thom, Preah Vihear, Kratie, and Stung Treng, constitutes Cambodia’s most valuable forest area.  Another 6,000 - 10,000 hectares of the Colexim concession in Mean Rith commune has been earmarked for rubber, something that is specifically against the wishes of the minority Kuy community inhabiting the area, and will continue the destruction of the largest block of lowland forest in continental Southeast Asia.  The request for this expansion has reportedly emanated from the Seng Keang Company, one of the key beneficiaries of the Tum Ring logging operation, and may generate for the company more than $20 million, given that they are using firewood collection permits to justify the transport of logs, and the royalty on “firewood” is negligible. 

Aims of the Consultancy

The purpose of research in Mean Rith is to conduct a baseline study of existing livelihoods, and to examine the potential impacts and costs and benefits of rubber plantation development before it occurs. 

In addition, the consultants will provide suggestions for further research and advocacy steps to address the situation in Mean Rith

Research Team

An ex-patriate consultant and Cambodian consultant(s) will work together to undertake the research, with the ex-patriate advisor providing backstopping support for the Cambodian researcher, and Mlup Baitong providing administrative and logistical support.  The team will also liaise with other NGOs working in the target site.

The team will design a livelihood study involving a cross-section of the community.  The report should contain the following sections. 

Section One: Background

This section should provide a brief history of the commune, including an introduction to forest and land issues.  It should identify:

Section Two: Resource Assessment and Livelihood Strategies

The aim of this component is to understand natural resource use and livelihood strategies in Mean Rith commune. This section should include a PRA with villagers.  Questions/activities to be undertaken in this component include:

(Option – Time permitting) Section Three: Comparison of Livelihoods in Tum Ring and Mean Rith

In this section, the research team will use existing livelihood data for Tum Ring commune to draw comparisons with Mean Rith.  It will seek to analyze:

Section Four: Recommendations for Further Research, Strategies, and Actions

The team will make suggestions and recommendations for further research, strategies, or actions to address the problems encountered in the target areas.  Such recommendations would be based on the research and analysis in this ToR. 

Appendix 2

Trip 1 - People interviewed

Puth Bon Kong – CoDec Director

Sok Mon – MR CC

Srey Siek– MR Commune Councillor

Srey Sang Keng – MR Commune Councillor

Oick Kim He – Sandan Assistant District Chief

Chom Phkar villagers – 12 villages

Kaloung Khting villagers – 23 villagers, including the Chief and Assistant Chief of the krom.

O Pouk villages – 10 villagers, including village elders, decentralisationcommittee members, villagers. 

O Laok villages – 15 villagers, including the Chief and Assistant Chief of the krom.

Tum Ring Commune Chief

Tum Aur Village Chief and 2 other villagers

Ronteah villagers – 5-6 villagers (including the Village Chief) at Tik Tlar (near boundary with Mean Rith) and in Ronteah village.

Trip 2 - People interviewed (including age and gender)

O Pork O Laok Chom Phkar Anlong Khting
Suy Than, 36, M* Koeurn, 44, M Voeurn, 30, F Seam, 60, F
Noun Ny, 42, F* Sarng, 30, F Vat, F Srey Ben, 56, M
Porl, 37, M Sam, 70, F Didn’t ask Hong than, 30, M
Mey, 38, F Earm, 40,F Didn’t ask, M Sok Khearng, 41, F
Nou Savan, 34, M Tong Ang, 42, F Sen Soeurn, 32, F Tun, 75, M
Sear, 44, F Child of Koeurn, 25, M Don, 38, M Sem, 31, M
Ven, 38, F Noeurn, 40, F Mom Rem, 40, F Ran, 40, M
Deavtha, 48, M

Tha, 48, F

Nounmy, 38, M Senthan, 47, M Koeurn, 65, M
Cey, 50, F   Van, 64, F Van Ny, 27, F
Promveasna, 37, M   Thy, 30, F Nham Houn, 48, F
Thun, M      

M=Male, F=Female

Appendix 3: Survey used for villager interviews 

Date:

Place:

1. Head of household’s name, gender and age?

2. How many members in your family?

3.  How long have you lived here?

4. Where did you live before?

5. What is your occupation now?

6. Why do you live here?

7. Where do you get water in dry season? How far from your house?

8. What kind of land do you own? How much land do you own? How long have you owned it ?

    - Do you have any official document for the owed land?

Please could you fill in the table.

Kind of land Size Land title Period of using land
Paddies rice      
House plot      
Chamkar      
Total      

 

9. How did you get your land?

10. What kind of soil is your land? What crops grow best on your land?

11. How many years do you normally grow rice on the same piece of land before changing the place?

12. What do you plant after rice, why?

13. Soy bean, rice, Mung bean, corn. Which is your most important livelihood activity? Next and next

14. What are the most important crops that you grow? Could you please help to fill in this table.

Crop Year Area planted How much did you harvest? How many were you short of rice? Was the crop good, normal or poor, why? Lowland or Upland
Rice 2003          
2002          
Crop Year Area planted Amount harvested Amount sold Price/kg Expenses Was the crop good, normal or poor, Why? Did you hire labour, exchange labour or use your own labour
Soy bean 2003              
2002              
Sesame 2003              
2002              
Corn 2003              
2002              
Mung beans 2003              
2002              
Peanuts 2003              
2002              
Any other

Resin tree

               

15. How many banana plants do you have? How many bunches do you normally sell a month?

    - How much do you sell your bananas for?

16. How many months a year do you sell your bananas?

17. Apart from this, do you have any other income? How much per year do you earn from this other income?

18. Apart from rice what other foods are you short of? Why are you short?

19. Is it easier now than 5 years ago for you and your family to earn your living?

20. What kind of forest is in your area? How large?

21. What NTFPs do you use?

22. Did you used to have resin tree? When? Why did you stop? How many trees did you tap?

23. How would you like to develop your land in the future?

24. What other kinds of possibilities do you see for making your living in the future?

25. What do you think will be the most difficult problem for you to make your living in the future?

26. Have you been threatened to leave here?

27. What do you think about the rubber plantation development in Tum Ring Commune?

28. What do think you can do to protect and manage your land in the future?

29. What do think you can do to protect and manage the village area  (including forest areas) in the 

      future?

30. Who and what agency can help you?

31. When you or your relative gets a seriously sick what do you do?

32. Beside Khmer, what language can you speak?

    - Do you know other people in the village can speak other languages? What languages?

33. Do you consider yourself originally from Khmer or any other ethnic group? What is your ability to use Khmer language?

34. Do you have children that go to school?

35. What do you have any comments or questions?

Appendix 4: Sketch maps of the Mean Rith Areas

1. Mean Rith Commune

2. Chom Phkar Area

3. Anlong Khting

4. O Pork

5. O Laok

 

Appendix 5: Description of Rubber Agroforest systems[1]

Agroforests.

Summary 

Agroforests demonstrate a sophisticated evolution of shifting cultivation to more permanent productive agroforestry. Shifting cultivators have used their knowledge and skills of forest management to develop systems that look like natural forests.

Agroforests are forests planted with many useful tree species. In comparisons done between natural forests and food forests the number of trees and the number of species present in each were as follows; 

Comparison of forest diversity and structure                      

 

Food forest

Natural forest

Number of trees

426

503

Number of species

170

252

Source: ICRAF 

Agroforests cover large areas of Sumatra and Kalimantan (Borneo) provinces of Indonesia. Some are traditional practices, Durian forests, Damar forests (Shorea sp.) for resin. Others are more recent adaptations, jungle Rubber, Cinnamon forests. Even in densely populated Java 20% of agricultural land is occupied by the ‘pekarangan’ agroforest home garden with a high plant density. 

Soil fertility studies comparing traditional fallows, rubber gardens and fruit gardens suggest the greater the diversity the better the soil fertility build up.[2] Diverse systems are more likely to be the most sustainable, and in the long term the most productive. 

3.1) From jungle rubber to Rubber agroforest systems (RAS).[3]

Jungle rubber covers 2.5 million ha. in Indonesia, with 1 million small farmers and providing employment for 10 million people. The system developed from shifting cultivation as farm families tried to improve the productiveness of their fallows. Free rubber seed was collected from the nearby estates and sown into the upland rice crop. 

Stage 1.Unselected rubber trees grew with the secondary forest in a complex agroforestry system. The advantages of this system are no cost, no labour required during the early stages, and income diversification from rubber, fruits, rattan, and timber.

Stage 2.Improved practices were slowly adopted to create the beginnings of a complex rubber agroforestry system that required minimum cost and labour, such as planting in lines, once a year weeding.

Stage 3.Improvements on these systems resulted with access to improved plant material (‘clonal’ rubber), good tapping techniques, better weed control, etc. Where unselected rubber produces 500kg/ha, clonal rubber will yield 1500-2000kg/ha.

With the development of more intensive management other innovations were also introduced, such as intercropping in the early stages, planting (or selecting those already growing) fruit and timber trees, resulting in an improved ‘rubber based complex agroforest system’. The emphasis is now on establishing a rubber agroforest, rather than simply enriching the fallow.

Recent research has looked at how to integrate indigenous knowledge of jungle rubber with external innovations, to raise productivity while conserving environmental and biodiversity benefits of such systems. In a jungle rubber system there might be 400-500 tappable trees/ha and 200-500 other trees. Trees planted in improved systems include Teak, Mahogany, and Ironwood for timber, Rambuttan and Durian for fruit, and Rattan. An example of the system is;

            Intercrop annuals for 3 years in the young rubber and fruit trees.

            Trees planted with rubber include-        20% Rambuttan.

                                                                  20% Durian.

                                                                  20% Baharia species (seed pods popular)

                                                                  20% other fruit and timber e.g. Illipi nut (Shorea macrophylla).

                                                                  20% anything else.

 Thailand is presently subsidizing the planting of fruit trees into rubber.

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[1] Royal Government of Cambodia, “Government Communiqué on the Development of Family-Scale Rubber Plantation”, 03/BK, 8 August 2000. 
[2][1] Comments by the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, H.E. Mr Chan Sarun, made in Rasmei Kampuchea, 7 December, 2003. 
[1] From: Ironside, J. 1997, ‘Report on the Conference on Indigenous Strategies for the Intensification of Shifting Cultivation in Southeast Asia, Bogor, Indonesia, 23-27 June 1997’.
[2] Lawrence, Astiani, Syazhaman-Kawar and Fiorentino, 'Does tree diversity affect soil fertility? A critical hypothesis and initial findings in the alternative fallow management systems of West Kalimantan.' ICRAF, IDRC, CIIFAD. 'Indigenous Strategies for Intensification of Shifting Cultivation in South East Asia: Workshop Abstracts.' June 23-27, 1997, Bogor, Indonesia.
[3] Pernot, 'From shifting cultivation to sustainable rubber in Indonesia: A history of innovation and integration for smallholders in the peneplains of Sumatra and Kalimantan.' Ibid.