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MEKONG PEOPLE

The Role of Local Communities in Hydro-planning

Towards Public Participation in S/EIA, Cambodia

The NGO Forum on Cambodia

UNESCAP/E7 Regional Workshop on EIA for Hydropower Development

In Cambodia, Laos PDR Thailand and Vietnam

Emphasizing Public Participation

Bangkok, November 20024th 1997

The NGO Forum on Cambodia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project could not have taken place without the ideas and assistance of many people; most importantly the many villagers, community representatives and NGO staff who participated in the workshops.

The local NGO's who hosted the provincial workshops were generous with their time in providing ideas and support. Many thanks go to Heng Sovuthy of Cambodian Women's Children's Arts and Crafts Development (CWCACD) and her family in Kandal, Yu Thy and colleagues of Kratie Women's Welfare Association (KWWA) in Kratie, and to Vann Piseth and Auv Sopeak of the Culture and Environment Preservation Association (CEPA) in both Stung Treng and in Phnom Penh.

Mahesh Mishra of Save the Children UK initiated the case study, and Ek Sophanna at NGO Forum provided valuable administrative support. Many thanks to the Non-Timber Forest Products Project for enabling the consultant to carry out this research. Elizabeth Weight of AFSC provided assistance in planning and reviewing drafts. She was generous with her time and carried out a documentation review of ELX capacity in Cambodia.

Many thanks to Venerable Nou Neang and Venerable Chhoun Poy of Pearn Monkol Pagoda in Rorkakong Cornmune for hosting and joining our workshop. Mr. Ly Bun Yirn, Professor of the Arts and adviser to CWCACD must also be acknowledged for his interest, suggestions and participation in the Kandal workshop.

Thank you to His Excellency Dang Ang, Third Vice Governor of Kratie Province and to Mr. Chreng Sum Ven, Deputy Director of Sambo District for their welcome and support. Mr Mok Kurnsat, Deputy Director of Environment, Kratie Province gave a short presentation on the Mekong river. The staff of CAA kindly provided accommodation for the researchers whilst in Sambo District.

We gratefully acknowledge the support of His Excellency Koy Sarim, Third Vice-Governor of Stung Treng Province who opened and closed our workshop and kindly contributed a banner A big thank you to Mr. Non Chanty, Director of the Environment Department who assisted with introductions and logistical support in Stung Treng. Mr. Mao Pa of Thrall Boriwat District kindly hosted the workshop.

This case study would not have been possible without the initiative of Peter Johnston at the Environmental Technical Assistance Program, Ministry of Environment, who facilitated funding from UNESCAP and UNDP for the research.

Filially, special thanks go to Sabine Joukes, Christopher Horvath and Thip Sophal for their hold hospitality in Phnom Penh during this project.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the term ‘public participation’ has appeared in numerous research and project documents concerning environmental impact assessment (EIA). As a key aspect of hydropower planning and decision-making, it is imperative that EIA theory is put into practice and that ‘public participation’ plays a major role.

A number of donors, companies, governments and inter-governmental organisations concerned with hydropower development in the Mekong Basin have identified public participation as a pre-requisite to sustainable development. At present, many of these commitments are on paper only and it is clear that before practical guidelines can be developed, concerned organisations must establish common definitions of ‘public’ and ‘participation’. Furthermore, how should the process take place, who is responsible for which aspect, and who should provide the necessary funding?

This paper explores these issues in the context of Cambodia. It documents the findings of a series of workshops held in sites along the Mekong river which would be impacted in some way by the proposed dams as well as one for NGO’s in Phnom Penh. It outlines local people’s views and questions about public participation including: the need for their involvement, the Cambodian context, their understanding of hydropower issues and a number of suggested strategies.

The objectives of the provincial workshops were to:

Promote understanding of hydropower issues amongst people who live along the Mekong and it’s tributaries in Cambodia

Evaluate the interest and awareness of communities and local authorities in initiating a dialogue on plans for Cambodia

Ask local people if they would like to be consulted, and establish why, when and how this should be done

This paper was presented at a regional workshop sponsored by UNESCAP on EIA for hydro-planning in the Mekong basin. This paper has been prepared by NGO Forum, a coalition organisation representing over a hundred local and international NGO’s in Cambodia. The mandate of the Forum is to "Highlight the impact of the development process and economic and social and political change on ordinary Cambodian people"

2. Transparency and Accountability

The call for wider involvement in the EIA process has developed from an improved understanding of the wider impacts of large infrastructure projects such as dams. EIA’s have been carried out for hydropower projects for many years, in order to [1]:

" Clarify the most important ways that development projects will affect the environment and the people who use that environment; compare alternatives to the project, or to the way in which a project will be implemented; communicate findings to stakeholders; recommend improvements to a project to reduce impacts and help decision-makers learn from experience to make better decisions on future projects"

However, in reality, the actual EIA methodology used has resulted in many of these objectives being overlooked or explored in insufficient detail. This is particularly true for the identification of environmental and socio-economic impacts, the communication of findings to all stakeholders, and the evaluation of alternatives.

For many donors, EIAs are now a mandatory aspect of planning and projects will not be seriously considered unless this process has been completed. However, it is clear that there are significant differences between EIA in theory and in practice and there is much evidence to show that inadequate attention has been given to key aspects such as timing, content, implementation, presentation, transparency and accountability.

Timing - It is evident that EIA methodology has been insufficient in a number of existing hydropower projects in the Mekong basin. This is true of the Nam Theun Hinbourn and the Nam Theun 2 in Lao PDR whereby construction or logging of reservoir sites (respectively) began before all EIA studies were completed. This disregard for EIA methodology prevents meaningful consultation with local people and review of alternatives. In an internal study of EIA procedures, the World Bank [2] notes that:

"Not enough EA’s [environmental assessments] actually influence project design because they are not being prepared early enough - it normally takes one year to conduct an EA - particularly to incorporate seasonal variations"

"When the EA is completed, the project design is often already finalized, precluding meaningful consideration of alternatives".

"Most EA’s have failed to give serious consideration to alternative operations and technology and those that do, explore weak, superficial or easily dismissable options."

The study documented how 76% of Bank staff and 71% of government borrowers thought that assessments were not completed in time to significantly influence project design.

Consultation - Funders have sometimes stressed that there is too little time or resources during planning to meet with local people or concerned members of the public. In 1995 [3] Dr. Kazi Jalal, (chief of the Office for Environment and Social Development at the Asian Development Bank) stated that:

"Given time and other limitations, Bank project preparatory missions may not be in a position to meaningfully receive direct public input"

[Undertaking in-situ hearings in project areas would] "Pose a number of administrative and logistical difficulties…..and is beyond the Bank’s capacity"

Content - In a context of limited resources, attention should be drawn to the content of EIA’s – what are the priority questions? Often EIA’s generate large amounts of information in the form of numerous reports which are of little impact or influence in the decision-making process. The World Bank study [4] highlighted that:

"Data collection efforts for EA’s are not focused enough, they add to the borrowers cost but not necessarily increase the documents usefulness. Often the TOR’s [terms of reference] wanted predictions and evaluations on too many impacts, obscuring the focus on relevant key impacts."

Unless baseline studies of existing livelihoods and resource use are carried out with the involvement of affected communities, these impacts cannot be predicted. The most important questions to be considered during the EIA are:

What are the social and environmental impacts resulting from the project?

Who will be affected?

Can these impacts be mitigated?

Do less damaging alternatives exist?

Who - Who should carry out an EIA? Problems have arisen when consultancy firms who are funded by (or share staff with hydropower proponents, like construction companies) are responsible for EIA’s. Such conflicts of interest have resulted in overestimation of project benefits and the underestimation of costs, as well as loss of public confidence in the findings. For example, In 1991 when the Nam Theun 2 was initially approved, annual revenue to the Lao Government was estimated to be US$176 million. By 1997, expected revenues were reduced to $33 million [5]. It has been suggested that only those companies who repeatedly predict favorable outcomes are awarded these lucrative research contracts [6].

Objective - What is the objective of an EIA? Some individuals and organisations regard them merely as a procedural requirement, and others as a positive opportunity to evaluate project alternatives and consult the stakeholders involved in order to make informed and accountable decisions.

Transparency - Although a key objective of EIA is to communicate the research findings to all stakeholders, this is rarely the case in reality. There has been a lack of transparency and many crucial project documents have not been disclosed to the public or to affected communities. In many instances, the principle authors of EIA documents remain undisclosed. In this context community representatives, people’s organisations, academics or NGO’s are unable to comment on projects or evaluate the alternatives. Where documentation is available, it is usually in English and is often of a technical nature. This prevents the majority of stakeholders from accessing important information.

Accountability - Finally, the issue of who bears final responsibility for any negative impacts calls for attention. It is of note that although the Asian Development Bank is financed by public money, article 50 of the ADB charter states that:

"The Bank shall enjoy immunity from every form of legal recourse".

An ADB guidebook outlines how:

"The Bank is immune from every form of legal process, except in relation to borrowings, guarentees, and the purchase, sale or underwriting of securities" [7]

So although the Bank is legally bound to it’s financial agreements with borrower countries, affected communities have no legal recourse. It is difficult to see how the Bank can fulfill its objectives of sustainable development and poverty alleviation when it is held accountable to short-term financial matters but not to permanent environmental and socio-economic impacts of it’s projects. Furthermore, the Bank’s evaluation criteria states that:

"The Bank’s charter states that only economic considerations should be relevant in the decisions taken by the Bank, the Management, and staff, and such considerations should be weighed impartially to achieve and carry out the work of the Bank" [7]

CONCLUSIONS

It is clear that further transparency and accountability are called for in the EIA process. Only when all stakeholders are able to contribute to and review the studies will the research findings improve, as well as their credibility and final acceptance by all parties concerned.

3. Stakeholders

LIVELIHOODS AND THE MEKONG RIVER

This paper explores the question of who the stakeholders are in Mekong river development. One objective of this case study was to ask local communities if they felt this was an issue that concerned them. Do they regard themselves as stakeholders? If they do, is this true for communities located upstream and downstream, as well as people living in a proposed reservoir area? In this context, the workshop participants were people who live and work along the Mekong. Indeed, around half of the Cambodian population live within 5km of the Mekong, it’s tributaries and other rivers.

Workshops were held by NGO Forum in Kandal, Kratie and Stung Treng. In Kandal, Rorkakong Commune in Moukampoul District was selected. This commune is located 35 km North-east of Phnom Penh. Sambo District was selected in Kratie, 350 km North-east of Phnom Penh. Finally, Thala Boriwat District was selected in Stung Treng, 480 km North-East of Phnom Penh. These are all communities who would undoubtedly be affected by hydropower development along the Mekong or its tributaries as a mainstream dam has been proposed at Sambo in Kratie district, which would also impact downstream communities in Kandal. A study is presently being carried out into opportunities for hydropower development in the Sesan, Sekong (and Nam Theun) river basins where Stung Treng is located. A final workshop was held in Phnom Penh and members of NGO Forum and other interested groups were invited to participate.

The workshops began with a short presentation on the geography of the Mekong, including the source of the river, the countries it flows through and the provinces in Cambodia it passes through. This was followed by discussion groups in which the participants were asked to consider the significance of the Mekong. The intention was to explore how local people use the river, with the secondary objective of exploring the similarities, differences and patterns of river use between the three provinces.

Use of the Mekong in Kandal Province

In Kandal, participants reported that the river is important for providing water and fertile silt for their rice fields. Fishing is a key livelihood activity in the community. Domestic water supply, communication and transportation are also key factors. 

Use of the Mekong in Kratie Province

In Kratie, it is clear that the river plays a central role in the lives of the people, particularly domestic water (important for health) in terms of cooking, bathing and drinking. Fish migration patterns were described in detail; in the rainy season fish travel downstream from Kratie to the great Tonle Sap lake. In January and February they return upstream to spawn and breed in tributaries of the Mekong such as the Sesan, Srepok and Sekong. Important fish habitats include flood plains, islands, deep pools and riverbanks. When the river floods, small ponds are created by the banks of the river where villagers can raise fish. Many species of wildlife also use the river for bathing and drinking.

The river provides water for irrigating rice fields (especially in the dry season), and fertile silt deposits. Transport by boat is important for trade and communication. Materials for construction like gravel and sand can also be extracted. Driftwood floating downstream can be collected for use in cooking. Finally, participants highlighted the importance of the Mekong for recreation and it's potential for tourism.

Use of the Mekong in Stung Treng Province

In Stung Treng, many of the same uses and benefits were described, including domestic water, fisheries, agriculture, wildlife, transportation, tourism and biodiversity. Participants also stressed the importance of flooded forests as a fish habitat, and of the need for a water supply for agro-industry.

It is clear that riverine resources are of great importance to local people in these areas. Although the communities use the river in various ways, it is clear that fishing, domestic water supply, agriculture and transport are the most important uses of the river.

EXPECTATIONS OF HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT

The experience in Southeast Asia and in many other countries has been that large scale development projects such as hydropower has a number of negative impacts on the lives of local people. This reality is increasingly being recognised by both donors and governments and in May 1994, the Commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Reclamation - formerly one of the world’s premier dam construction agencies - acknowledged that:

"The dam-building era in the United States is now over. Soil salinisation, decline or elimination of fisheries, elimination of wetland habitats, destruction of native cultures, agricultural pollution, reservoir sedimentation and the risks of dam safety concerns have all been by-products of our development efforts. Actual total costs of a completed project exceed the original estimated costs by at least 50% and often project benefits were never realized" [8]

Although a number of these negative impacts are the result of inadequate research, planning, and public participation, many impacts are the inevitable result of large-scale hydropower development.

The majority of the public, government, and NGO staff in Cambodia have had little exposure hydropower issues. There has been little debate on the call for or the impacts of dam construction. In order for the Royal government of Cambodia to be able to make informed and responsible decisions concerning it’s river resources, they need clear information and a chance to weigh up the costs and benefits.

One objective of this case study was that the workshops could be held as a pilot project to establish whether workshops at the local level are useful and appropriate. A further objective was to establish the level of understanding that communities and government staff have in areas where dams have been proposed.

It was apparent in all sites that people had had little or no access to information. Both provincial and district staff and local people were keen to have a chance for discussion. In Kratie and Stung Treng NGO Forum met with one of the provincial Governors to introduce the objectives and activities of the workshops and to discuss key issues. In each case, provincial and district staff seemed to welcome the initiative, and sent a number of representatives to participate.

Following group discussions on the Mekong river, a presentation was made concerning dams: what does a dam look like, how is electricity made, which organisations are planning hydropower in the Mekong basin? What are the plans for each site (i.e. Sambo in Kratie and Sesan/Sekong study in Stung Treng). This introduction was followed by an outline of the reasons for and benefits of hydropower, including flood control, electricity, foreign exchange and irrigation. One of the NGO Forum team is an employee of the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy so he was able to answer any questions posed by the participants. Other government staff could also contribute information on this issue.

The next presentation involved discussion of the lessons learned in neighboring countries such as Thailand, Lao PDR and Vietnam. This objective of this was to give a balanced picture of dam construction. Issues included fisheries, livelihoods, agriculture, forests and cultural heritage.

To allow for discussion in small groups, participants were asked to imagine that a dam was already built upstream or close to their village (depending on the site). They were asked to discuss their expectations of dam construction; what changes – both positive and negative - would they expect to see in their community?

In each site the participants had lively discussions and shared many ideas. A number of groups and individuals had specific questions which they wanted to pose to various organisations including the Royal Government, funds, NGO’s and the MRC. These are also outlined.

Expectations of hydropower development

Downstream issues, Kandal Province

Villagers expect that dam construction would bring benefits like cheap electricity, industry, new jobs and flood control. However, they worry that fish populations would decrease as migration patterns and important habitats (like wetlands) are destroyed by dam construction. Fishing is an important part of their livelihood and any impact on fish stocks would reduce the income of many households.

People travel a lot by boat within Kandal province, as well as upstream to Kompong Cham, Kratie and Stung Treng Province. They question whether or not there would be sufficient water to travel by boat all year round, and how they would be able to cross the dam to travel upstream? Would they need to find a new way to travel? They are concerned that the water supply would be controlled by the operators of the dam and that the natural flow of the river would be changed. Finally, would the health of the community be affected if water levels are reduced?

Expectations of hydropower development

Indigenous issues, Stung Treng Province

Villagers in Stung Treng expected that dam construction would bring cheap electricity and industrial development. Discussions focused on damage to fisheries, particularly the fate of endangered species like the Irrawaddy dolphins and fish species known as ‘pawa’ and ‘pase-ee’. Logging is already accelerating in the province and concerns about the logging called for by reservoir development and at construction sites - as well as an increase in wildlife hunting and sales - were raised. The maintenance of forest cover is of particular importance for the livelihoods of indigenous peoples, of whom there are many in Stung Treng including Kavet, Lun, Kachok, Kuy, Phnong, Tampuen, Kreung and Brao. They rely on many non timber forest products for their livelihood such as bamboo, rattan, medicines, honey, and small wildife. Forest fruits and vegetables like wild tubers are crucial for their food security.

Finally, transportation and water supply (domestic and agricultural) issues were raised.

Expectations of hydropower development

Resettlement issues, Kratie Province

Discussions in Kratie focused on the issue of resettlement as if the proposed Sambo dam was developed downstream at Prek Kampi, then Sambo District would be in the reservoir area. People described how their houses, fisheries, rice fields, markets, schools and health centers would be submerged. They feared that social problems would emerge due to the difficulty of finding new land, rebuilding their businesses and finding new jobs. They expected that corruption would occur during allocation of resettlement land and that the poorer people would be vulnerable. They were afraid that promises of new infrastructure and good land for resettlement would not materialize.

The participants were especially concerned about their cultural heritage. There are three temples in Sambo District, one of which ‘Wat Sor Sor Moui Roy’ - or the temple of a hundred columns - has great religious and cultural significance throughout Kratie Province. NGO Forum met with a senior monk on a visit to this temple, and two further monks participated in the workshop. An ancient funeral site and a number of pre-Angkorian stone carvings (from when Sambo was the capital of Cambodia) are also located in the temple grounds. The possible flooding of ancestral graves was an issue of concern. A number of islands in the Mekong are also of historical significance to local people.

Finally, questions about transportation difficulties and the resulting increase of prices for travel, goods and services were raised.

It is of note that construction of a dam at Kratie would disturb fish migrations and fish stocks in the upper and lower Mekong. A recent survey [9] identified an important dolphin sanctuary 2 km south of Prek Kampi’s convergence with the Mekong where the Sambo dam is proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

It is clear that communities in proposed project sites would expect a number of benefits as well as negative impacts from dam construction and they have many questions concerning the impacts on their livelihoods and how these issues would be resolved. It is not the objective of this discussion to suggest that local people want dams or do not want dams, but to highlight the need for consultation by outlining some of their initial concerns.

If hydropower proponents question the validity of these fears then the most practical action for them is to hold public consultations and invite communities, provincial governments, NGO’s and other concerned parties and for open dialogue. The NGO Forum workshops for this case study were only the starting point for information dissemination and discussion. Clearly, more work needs to be done.

It was encouraging to note that in a short timeframe the participants were able to understand and discuss concepts (like dams and reservoirs) which were entirely new to them. Public participation is often overlooked due to an assumption that - due to low levels of education - communities would not be able to understand the issues involved. This case study can confirm that this is definitely not the case.

Testimony From a Monk,

Representative of the People of Rorkakong Community, Kandal Province

"As I take part in a workshop about hydro-electricity construction along the Mekong river in the Kingdom of Cambodia, I think that after dam construction, local people who plant rice will have many difficulties in the dry season because:

The water level may not reach the flood-plains and the older generation normally uses that water to irrigate their rice fields in the dry season.

Fertile silt cannot reach the rice fields as natural flooding will be stopped. The land of the farm people will have no natural fertilizer.

The habitats of all kinds of animals will be affected because some species live in shallow water and others live in deep water. Fish crossing the turbines will dieas happened at the Pak Moun electricity dam in Thailand. For this reason, fish populations in Cambodia will be reduced in the future.

Traveling by boat will be difficult, for example we used to go certain distances in a short time, and after dam construction this could be longer and then perhaps we will not want to go by boat anymore.

According to the above observations I emphasize that people living along the river depend on rice, fish, water and their agricultural fields. They cannot live on electricity power without everything mentioned above. Thus hydro-power can provide electricity to develop industries in rural area, but if people cannot not live in the same area, then electricity has no meaning for us, the people living in Mok Kampol district, Kandal Province. The Tonle Sap River and its tributaries is my birth place and every rainy season we want enough water to be able to develop a dry season rice crop. Also, if there is not enough water, the insects will increase".

Peam Monkol Pagoda, October 14th 1997

4. Towards Public Participation

DEFINING PARTICIPATION

As mentioned before, If strategies and common guidelines are to be developed for local people’s participation in the EIA process, it is important that the meaning of the terms ‘public’ and ‘participation’ are clarified.

The term participation has been used in many contexts, and it is clear that definitions vary widely between individuals and organisations. For example, if villagers contribute their labour to develop infrastructure such as roads or bridges in a ‘food for work’ programme, this is participation. At the other end of the spectrum, villagers may be empowered to define their own needs and initiate their own projects, and this is also participation.

Consultants for the Sekong/Sesan study cite the Nam Theun 2 and the Nam Leuk projects as examples of "innovative stakeholders approaches that seek to ensure a sustainable approach to hydropower development". However, other organisations have questioned whether the participation process was effective. They highlight how the EIA for Nam Leuk did not include a socio-economic and livelihood analysis and consultants were not asked to study downstream villages. In terms of the Nam Theun 2, the World Bank’s International Advisory Group (IAG) stated that [10]:

"The IAG has doubts about the effectiveness of consultations on the ground with the most vulnerable populations, particularly women and ethnic minorities......It’s own direct contacts with these groups, though not extensive, suggest that the level of comprehension of project proposals and their impacts is low"

The most important question in terms of public participation in EIA is whether or not local people’s ideas are given serious consideration in decision-making, planning, designing and implementing dam construction.

DEFINING THE PUBLIC

This case study focuses on local people as a stakeholders. The participants were asked to consider who should be involved in hydropower planning for the Mekong River Basin. This was an opportunity for them to identify stakeholders.

Who should play a role in hydropower planning in Cambodia?

Participants identified the Royal Government as the key decision-maker in hydropower development. They expected that certain Ministries would have an important role to play, including: Environment, Agriculture, the Fisheries Department, Public Works, Industry, Culture, Tourism and Finance. They understood the role of the Mekong River Commission and the Cambodian Mekong Committee, as well as funders and construction

companies. NGO’s were also regarded as stakeholders.

All groups stated that local people should be involved in hydropower planning. They stressed that communities have knowledge about the local area. Without their insights into local markets, livelihoods and resource use, companies will not be aware of the exact impacts of a given project. The NGO participants in Phnom Penh highlighted how certain members of a community could be particularly useful in providing local knowledge to the planning process, including; women’s groups, religious leaders, fishermen, traders, small businessmen, elders, headmen, midwives, traditional healers, teachers and parents groups.

Local people clearly feel this is a process in which they should play an active role. The river is an important part of their lives and livelihoods and therefore they are key stakeholders in hydropower development.

WHY PUBLIC PARTICIPATION?

Only when the opinions of all stakeholders are considered will final decisions be accepted as transparent and responsible by all parties concerned. For organisations like the Mekong River Commission with a mandate to promote sustainable development, full consultations with affected communities are surely imperative. This requirement was expressed by DANIDA (principle donor of the Mekong River Commission) [11]:

"One of the issues we always put a lot of emphasis on is public participation: that is a prerequisite actually. How can you have sustainable development if you don't have public involvement, [my emphasis] people's involvement"

"There is a tremendous need for greater knowledge on what this basin actually consists of; for example, the value of fish. It is difficult to count the value of the fish because much of the fish is not put on the market, it is used as food for local fisherfolks or communities; so it is difficult to put a value on it in our terms but the value for the local communities is so important - it's such a big part of their whole livelihood"

Public involvement can greatly improve the quality of an EIA. Communities can provide information which cannot be obtained from other sources which can contribute to project design. It can create a forum for discussion, leading to a greater understanding of complex environmental and social issues. Public participation is important in order to avoid the mistakes of past projects.

A 1992 World Bank evaluation of its own environmental assessments found that although consultation was limited in most projects, when it was done effectively, project design was considerably improved and mitigation measures were clarified [12]. Although public participation is now a requirement of a number of international donors this is not always the case in practice. For example, NGO’s and members of the public were not invited to attend the first meeting of the ADB funded Sekong/Sesan study in Phnom Penh in May 1997.

PUBLIC PARTICIPATION - WHEN?

A key objective of this case study was to establish when local people would like to be consulted in the EIA and planning process. The following question was posed to small discussion groups:

At what stage in the planning process would you like to be consulted, and why?

All groups in each site confirmed that they would like to be consulted early on, and throughout the planning process. Reasons for this included:

At the planning stage because we know our geography

From the first stage as we can give local information and discuss the impacts

During the research stage as we will have the impacts of the project

It is evident that potentially affected communities would like to be involved in all stages of project development. For the EIA process, the specific stages that the public should have a role in are as follows:

Loan categorisation

Terms of reference

EIA research

Review of draft EIA

Submission to the Board of Directors

Implementation

Monitoring

Concluding comments on planning from the workshop participants

"The Government or NGO’s should be responsible for our livelihood during and after the construction" (Kandal)

"We would like to provide ideas to the developers such as in this workshop" (Kandal)

"If a dam is built, the Government should provide transportation to the resettlement site, agricultural lands, houses, hospitals, schools, pagodas, communication, markets, infrastructure and funds in secure, safe and healthy places. The Government has to train people to be able to get new jobs, it must provide clean water, electricity, seeds and fertilizer" (Kratie)

"The Royal Government, Mekong River Commission, Cambodian National Mekong Committee and the Asian Development Bank should do detailed research before construction" (Kratie)

"The Government and the Mekong River Commission must solve any problems caused by hydro-electric power construction" (Stung Treng)

"For any project concerning local people, please ask the community and take a democratic approach" (Stung Treng)

5. Context for Public Participation in Cambodia Challenges and Strategies

In order to develop some practical strategies for effective public participation in the Cambodian context, the participants were first asked to consider the barriers to involving local people in hydropower planning. What are the obstacles in terms of language, economics, communication or access to information. This was followed by small group discussions to identify appropriate strategies. The findings are included in the following discussion:

1. LEGALITY

The specific legal structure for implementing EIA is still being developed in Cambodia, although there are general provisions in the 1996 Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management. This law provides for assessment of the environmental impacts of all proposed projects prior to the issuance of a decision by the Royal Government and for ensuring the rational and sustainable conservation, development, management and use of the natural resources of the Kingdom of Cambodia. Article 6 states that:

"Assessment of environmental impacts shall be carried out on every project and activity of either private or public and shall be examined and evaluated by the Ministry of the Environment before it is submitted to the Royal Government for decision." [13]

The article states that EIA procedures will be determined by a Sub-Decree. A draft sub-decree was presented to the Ministry of the Environment for consideration in July 1997. The current draft may be simplified and condensed prior to being presented to the Council of Ministers. The draft sub-decree prescribes a three-part environmental review process involving:

Screening

Initial EIA

Full-scale EIA

Both screening and initial EIA are used to determine whether or not a full-scale environmental impact assessment is necessary. The draft Sub-Decree does not specify a methodology (to be used) for EIA. According to an overview of the proposed EIA procedures, [14] the public can be involved in the EIA process in the following ways:

Participating in the scoping stage of EIAs to identify key issues and define the extent of EIA studies for both initial and full EIA’s

Commenting on draft reports produced for full EIA’s. The final report is required to address those issues raised by the public

In order to facilitate meaningful participation, the draft Sub-Decree mandates that the public has: ‘reasonable access - in terms of time, location and costs - to all relevant information.’ Article 16 of Chapter 6 ‘Public Participation and Access to Information’ states that the:

"Ministry of the Environment, following a request from the public, shall provide information on its activities, and shall encourage public participation in environmental protection and natural resource management."

Specific procedures for public participation and access to information will be determined by the Sub-Decree. Although the finalisation of the Sub-Decree will provide an important foundation for public participation in environmental impact assessments, translating theory into practice remains a serious challenge in Cambodia.

A further legal challenge in terms of public participation is that at present, the Government lacks the capacity to register residents or award land titles adequately. This is due to a lack of common procedures, a weak court system, militarism, centralisation, corruption and undetermined land laws. This situation has serious implications for the resettlement of large numbers of people called for by dam construction. For example, in Kratie and in Ratanakiri, both provinces where dams are under consideration, customary systems exist with no legal recognition.

Strategies:

A number of countries such as Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia have public hearings provided for by law in their EIA legislation. This approach could be developed in Cambodia

At present it is unclear who is responsible for aspects of public participation such as information dissemination, translation of materials or costs of community workshops. There is a need for a legal framework concerning co-operation between NGO’s, government, funders and construction companies

A clear institutional framework is needed for EIA. This should define the role and responsibilities of each Ministry as well as a methodology for EIA’s

2. ACCESS TO INFORMATION

Until recently, most funders did not have distinct procedures for information disclosure to the public. If hydropower proponents like the ADB and the World Bank are not transparent in their approach and do not make project documents available to all stakeholders, the public cannot participate and funders cannot be held accountable for their actions. The ADB did not develop its policy on Confidentiality and Disclosure of Information until 1995. According to a handbook published by the Bank, [15] this was prompted by:

"The growing realization that the Bank should provide the greatest possible degree of transparency and accountability in its activities to ensure the success of the Bank's mission and to sustain public support for the Bank, while recognizing important legal and practical constraints"

The policy has a number of objectives, including

Encouraging debate and dialogue on policies and operations in order to generating new and varied perspectives

Ensuring effective local participation in decision-making for better implementation and sustainability of projects

Broadening understanding of the Bank's role among donor and borrowing members, co-financiers, non-governmental organisations, academics and the public at large to strengthen support for the Bank and its mission

An important challenge is to ensure that these guidelines are followed. Many documents - those considered confidential and those published before the 1995 policy - are not covered by the policy. As a result, the Bank has an easy opt-out clause for any materials they choose not to release. The Bank plans to use various media to disseminate information and new approaches include Email, computer networks and depository libraries. [16] It must be noted that a number of these approaches are not widely accessible or do not exist in Cambodia.

Strategies:

Funders should disclose all documents regarding EIA’s to the public as early as possible

NGO’s should closely monitor policy guidelines on information disclosure in practice

EIA’s should be published in international journals for peer review. This is crucial for ensuring high quality research and transparency

When EIA’s are completed and projects are submitted for consideration by the Board of Directors, all comments or appeals from the public should be documented and included

3. LANGUAGE

Examples of local people hearing about a project only after it has been approved have been documented in many countries in South East Asia. This situation must be avoided at all costs in Cambodia. Although a number of people in Phnom Penh are proficient in English - including some Government and NGO staff - disseminating (often technical) documents in English cannot be seen as a serious attempt at public consultation. Efforts must be made to provide information to a wider audience in an appropriate manner.

Care must be taken not to discriminate against illiterate people. Literacy rates in Cambodia are among the lowest in Asia and it is important that their needs are taken into account in information dissemination.

Minority groups may like Vietnamese fishing communities, Lao farmers/fishers and the indigenous people of North East Cambodia may have difficulties with publications in Khmer script as in many cases this is not their first language. This is especially true for women and people in more remote villages who have less access to education. As dams are obviously not built in cities or highly populated areas, a high proportion of hydropower projects world-wide have been proposed in indigenous areas. This has been the case in many countries, including Vietnam, Lao PDR, India and the United States. In Cambodia, projects are being considered in Kratie, Stung Treng and Ratanakiri, all areas populated with highland peoples.

Suggestions of workshop participants

Companies should translate documents concerning the planning process into Khmer

Information should be made available in time for people to read it

For illiterate people, picture-posters are a more appropriate approach to information dissemination

For indigenous people, there are usually some individuals in each community who can serve as resource people and verbally translate information from Khmer (to date, written systems for highland languages in Cambodia do not exist or are incomplete). This calls for clear and simple messages

Strategies:

Translation of EIA documents requires time as well as money but for effective participation, important information must be widely available

Non-technical documents are appropriate for public participation

4. COMMUNICATION

A pre-requisite to public participation is that people have access to information concerning hydropower proposals. It was evident that many provincial authorities, district staff and local people in proposed project sites have received little or no information on hydropower plans. They were extremely keen to hear about the plans and to discuss the issues.

The challenge for donors who are responsible for consulting the public in Cambodia is the unreliable nature of postal services, lack of access to copying facilities and media by much of the population. Although radio, newspaper and TV announcements of proposals and activities are necessary, additional means must be found for disseminating information to large sections of society who do not have access to these media. For example in the Northeast of the country, such as in Ratanakiri province, newspapers are largely unavailable, TV’s are almost only found in the provincial town of Ban Lung, and a number of villages do not have access to radio. The layout of highland communities whereby families spend most of the year in ‘chamkar’ or swidden garden houses instead of a central village site is a further obstacle to consultation and information dissemination.

Finally, the poor state of many roads in rural and urban areas makes traveling problematic, particularly in the wet season. Security issues must also be given due consideration.

Suggestions of workshop participants

Use TV, radio, video, and other media to distribute information

Send people’s representatives to visit existing hydropower dams to provide a chance for discussion and to meet with affected communities

Public awareness can be done by workshops, meetings, leaflets, picture posters, theater and pilot projects

Strategies:

Technical teams must brief local authorities and community representatives before they visit potential sites. They should promptly relay initial findings to these interested parties. Opportunities for on-site discussions must be taken.

Consultations must include more diverse sections of the public, not only official leaders should be invited for dialogue.

World Bank policy (OD 4.01) calls for affected groups and NGO’s to be informed and consulted. NGO’s should monitor this situation to ensure guidelines are followed.

5. HUMAN RESOURCES

The role of the various Ministries are presently unclear in terms of hydropower planning. This is exacerbated by the present lack of communication, transparency and co-operation between Ministries. Furthermore, it is evident that, even if responsibilities were clarified, certain Ministries may have a mandate, but no power, funds or capacity to carry out their tasks.

As all draft EIA’s will be reviewed at the Ministerial level, civil servant salaries need due consideration. Government staff cannot be expected to support their families at the present rates, ensuring that most have to divert some - or all - of their time to other jobs. Such external commitments discourage Ministerial staff like those of the Ministry of Environment from undertaking field surveys or village-based research in provincial areas. Thus staff have limited experience of working with Provincial staff or local communities. Provincial staff from most departments have even less resources or training opportunities. Finally, low salaries make government officials very vulnerable and susceptible to corrupt practices.

It is of note that a number of international organisations providing financial assistance and training for Ministry staff have had their programs cut by funders following the political violence of July 1997. Also, opportunities for study tours or dialogue on EIA issues with neighboring countries have been limited due to Cambodia’s years of isolation in the region.

Suggestions of workshop participants

Village-level training courses would be good for people to learn about hydropower issues

Pictures are a useful media for information dissemination to illiterate people

It is necessary to explain to people the positive and negative impacts of hydropower

Local people should select representatives to learn and gather information on behalf of their communities

Monks and nuns (the pagodas) can be used to organize the people to have discussions

Strategies:

If the majority of the population is unsure of what a dam or a reservoir looks like or their function, then how can they effectively participate in the decision-making process or in evaluating project options? An initial stage of education and dialogue is necessary, particularly in sites where dams have been proposed like those chosen for this case study. NGO’s could play a role in this process, in partnership with local authorities at the provincial, district and commune level.

Before communities can effectively consider project proposals, they need access to basic information concerning the positive and negative impacts of dam construction in neighboring countries. What lessons have been learned and what problems can be predicted?

Care must be taken, through village-level meetings, that villagers are given a genuine opportunity to ask questions and to give suggestions.

Women as well as men, minority and indigenous as well as Khmer people and young as well as elderly people should be consulted to ensure that all stakeholders are involved.

6. Economically

A number of economic issues need consideration in the context of Cambodia. Firstly, the living standards of many people in rural areas are very low. They rely on ricefields, rivers and forests in order to meet their subsistence needs. Large areas of ‘lowland' Cambodia like Takeo, Kompong Speu and Prey Veng have been stripped of their forests, and logging activities - both concessional and anarchic - have escalated in recent years in the North-east of the country where large forested areas remain. The livelihoods of many communities are increasingly fragile due to declining resources. The destruction of aquatic resources - as well as ancestral lands - would only serve to make them even more vulnerable. Villagers questioned who would take responsibility for assisting them if negative impacts resulted from dam construction, and it is certain that the Government’s limited budget could not provide for compensation or mitigation schemes.

It is clear from the workshops that local people desire to participate in both planning and decision-making. However, most cannot afford to travel long distances and take time off from farming and fishing activities to join meetings without some financial compensation. Communal funds are usually limited at the village level.

At a different level, the present state of the Thai economy is of consequence. Although hydropower is widely promoted as an agent for rural electrification and industrial development within Cambodia, there is no guarantee that all affected people would gain access to an electricity supply (as has happened in other countries in the region due to infrastructure and financial constraints). It is clear that the key objective of hydropower development in Cambodia is to export electricity to Thailand. The Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand has already signed a number of agreements with the Lao Government. These were based on projections of energy demand before the economic crisis of recent months. In fact Thailand’s Loan Forecast Committee sharply cut it’s power demand projections for 1997-2011[17]. This will have serious implications for Thailand’s power requirements and ability to buy electricity from Cambodia, as well as from Lao PDR.

Finally, Cambodia’s budgetary constraints - since the political turmoil in July - have received much attention recently. In addition to aid restrictions, it is estimated that around 40% of the national budget is devoted to the military. For example, the income of the Ministry of Environment has dropped by as much as 55% in recent months [18]. This has obvious implications for the capacity of many Ministries as well as Provincial and District departments. A further issue to be considered is the increasing level of international assistance to Cambodia that is pledged in the form of loans. Between 1994 and 1995, grants increased by only 5% but loan packages increased by 58%. In 1992-7 the ADB approved an estimated US$ 296 million in loans and in 1994-5 the World Bank approved US$ 120 million [19].

Strategies:

Funders should provide funds for translation of materials, information dissemination and expenses occurred (travel, food, lost income) from workshops, trainings and hearings. Only then can they be seen to have made a genuine commitment to public participation.

Lack of funds is often the reason given for limited consultation with affected communities. This is clearly not the case for donors who finance multi-million dollar projects (Nam Theun Hinbourn: US$ 60 million, Nam Leuk: US$52 million). If donors can support the high costs of research, design, construction and consultancy fees, then it is clear they can afford to disseminate information. Communication and consultation should also be priorities.

NGO’s have much experience of holding community-level workshops in Cambodia. Dialogue between NGO’s and funders, which could identify cost-effective ways of meeting with local people in proposed project sites.

Dams must be developed on the basis of realistic electricity demand, not because of the huge supply of money available for hydropower development or the financial interests of government officials who stand to gain from expensive investment projects

7. Security

Effective consultation requires that all stakeholders, particularly those directly and indirectly affected by a proposed project are able to air their views and discuss issues of importance. This is usually difficult due to a high degree of militarisation, but the violence of recent months - shelling in the streets of Phnom Penh and evidence of political executions - has seriously affected the confidence and ability of the public in both cities and rural areas to make their opinions known. This intense atmosphere of distrust, intimidation and fear is a critical barrier to participation and should receive serious consideration by investors planning large scale infrastructure projects for the country.

The prevalence of violence for conflict resolution in Cambodia has a number of implications for information dissemination. Public dialogue on sensitive issues, no matter how important to people’s livelihoods is clearly problematic in the present context and the fate of a number of Cambodian journalists and peaceful demonstrators is of particular note. The context for activities like those of "Forum of the Poor" in Thailand - whereby villagers grouped together to draw public attention to compensation issues - is clearly very different in Cambodia.

Important lessons can be drawn from the approach taken by logging companies to date in Cambodia. Even companies with legal concessions rely on the military to assist them to implement their projects. Undisciplined and heavily armed troops guard logging sites, stockpiled timber and accompany timber trucks. This show of arms effectively prevents researchers or other interested parties from being able to monitor or document their activities. Although the reality remains to be seen in terms of dam construction, it is probable that here also the military would have a role to play in logging the reservoir site, guarding the construction site or in the eviction of local people. In its 1995 policy on involuntary resettlement, the ADB outlines that:

"As is common with all projects, the responsibility for planning and implementing resettlement rests with the government [my emphasis] and other project sponsors"

The Bank proposes that:

"Staff of the Projects Departments should monitor regularly the involuntary aspects of ongoing Bank-financed projects" [20]

This would clearly not be an easy process in the Cambodian context. Finally, the question of who is responsible if well-intentioned policies are neglected or if social and environmental costs turn out to be higher than anticipated must surely be asked by all responsible donors.

Strategies:

Large-scale investors should give serious consideration to the reality of implementation in Cambodia. Guidelines and policies are only of value if they are followed

Projects should not be approved until a realistic and independent monitoring system has been developed

Military forces should play no part in the preparation and implementation phases of hydropower projects in Cambodia

Prevailing fears and a lack of information should not be taken advantage of to implement projects which well-informed and less restricted publics would never support

Training in dispute resolution (workshops, case studies) can be a productive framework for stakeholders to exchange perspectives, consider development options and initiate responsible decision-making. [21]

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of consultations with communities in proposed dam sites, this case study makes the following conclusions concerning local people’s participation:

Local people want to be consulted early on in the planning process, when the decision whether or not to build a dam is still to be taken, not when resettlement plans are being finalized or construction has already begun

Communities depend on the Mekong river and its tributaries to a great degree so they must be considered key stakeholders in hydropower planning

At present communities and the Royal Government (at the Ministerial, Provincial and District level) have very little information about hydropower plans for Cambodia

The communities who attended the workshops expect some benefits from dam development, but they are concerned about the costs. For example, many people stated that they ‘cannot eat electricity’.

People can understand and participate in dialogue on complex issues like hydropower development if provided with appropriate information in the right context

Local people's knowledge of their history, culture, livelihoods and resource use is invaluable to the planning process, in particular the prediction of social and environmental impacts

A number of general conclusions about public participation can also be made:

Funders and decision-makers need to be clear about cost benefit distribution ie who will receive the benefits and who will bear the costs of a given project. The question should not be limited to whether or not the overall benefits are greater than the overall costs

Many organisations have stated they support the concept of public participation. This commitment must be transformed into practice. Before this can be done, some common definitions of public participation must be developed, as well as practical strategies appropriate to the context

There is a need for funders to acknowledge the constraints of the Cambodian context for public participation, particularly concerning institutional capacity and militarisation

Public participation is required in order to avoid the mistakes of past projects and to ensure transparent and accountable decision-making

Funders should critically scrutinize investment in large infrastructure projects (particularly if they call for resettlement) when little or no EIA framework exists in practice and when security issues threaten effective public participation

A number of strategies have been outlined in this paper. Further strategies can be developed with further dialogue with NGO's and communities.

Public participation is crucial if Cambodia hopes to avoid the polarisation of opinions between groups over hydropower, as evident in neighboring countries.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1) There is a need for a framework clarifying who is responsible for which aspects of public participation amongst NGO’s, government, donors and companies.

2) Multi-lateral donors should disclose all documents regarding EIA’s to the public. NGO’s should closely monitor policy guidelines on information disclosure in practice.

3) EIA Documents should be available in a clear, non-technical format. Picture-posters are required for those with low or no literacy skills.

4) There is a need for public awareness on hydropower issues. This can be done through mass media and through workshops, meetings, leaflets, picture posters, the ssemination, workshops, trainings and hearings. Only then can they be seen to have made a genuine commitment to public participation.

8) Dialogue between NGO’s and funders could identify cost-effective ways of meeting with local people in proposed project sites.

9) Responsible investors should give serious consideration to the reality of implementing large scale infrastructure projects in Cambodia.

10) Military forces should play no part in the preparation and implementation phases of hydropower projects in Cambodia. An agreement should be signed with the Royal Government before a project is approved.

8. Endnotes

1) ADB, 1996

2) World Bank, 1996

3) NGO Working Group on the ADB, 1995

4) World Bank, 1996

5) International Rivers Network, 1997

6) Roberts, 1996

7) ADB, 1997

8) International Rivers Network, 1995

9) Baird and Forsyth, 1997

10) International Rivers Network, 1997

11) Watershed, 1996

12) World Bank, 1996

13) Royal Government of Cambodia, 1996

14) Esler and Johnston, 1997

15) ADB, 1997

16) ADB, 1994

17) International Rivers Network, 1997

18) H.E. Dr. Mok Mareth, Minister of the Environment, 1997

19) CDRI, 1996

20) ADB, 1995

21) Khon Kaen University, 1996

METHODOLOGY

This case study was carried out from September 27th until November 10th 1997. A local consultant from the Ministry of Industry Mines and Energy, Technical Department, Industrial Environmental Office, and an expatriate consultant from a community resource management project in N.E. Cambodia co-ordinated the workshops on behalf of NGO Forum.

Provincial workshops
The provincial workshops were carried out over two weeks in October (Kandal 12-14th, Kratie 16th-19th, Stung Treng 20-24th). The additional time was spent in preparation in Phnom Penh. The objectives of the provincial workshops were to:

The provincial workshops were held in collaboration with local 'host' NGO's. These organisations organised invitations and logistics and assisted with facilitation. In each site, NGO Forum met with senior Provincial and District officials in order to introduce the objectives and activities of the research and to discuss key issues. Workshops were held in collaboration with

Approximately 30-35 people participated in each workshop. Participants were predominantly villagers, including village representatives (leaders and elders), teachers, women's association members, men and women villagers, monks and nuns. A small number of district and provincial officials also joined in the meetings.
The workshops were conducted in sites along the Mekong River. Communities who would undoubtedly be effected by hydropower development along the Mekong or it's tributaries were selected:

Kandal Province:   

Kratie Province:

Stung Treng Province:

Workshops were held in temples or district meeting halls over two days; an afternoon and a morning session. In Stung Treng an additional afternoon session allowed for a field trip to a small hydropower project "O Pong Muan", 19 km east of the provincial town. The participants could see for themselves what a dam and a reservoir looks like, and how electricity is created. This was also a good opportunity for questions and discussion.

Phnom Penh workshop
The Phnom Penh workshop was hosted by NGO Forum on the 28th October. NGO Forum members from a number of local and international NGO's participated. The objectives of the workshop were to

Documentation review
A documentation review was also carried out. Materials included NGO publications, Government policy guidelines, donor publications, press releases as well as newspaper articles. Guidance and editorial input on the final paper were provided by members of the NGO Forum Environmental Working Group in Phnom Penh.

WORKSHOP SCHEDULES

Provincial:
2.00    OPENING
2.10    Introduction by NGO Forum
2.30    The Mekong River
2.45    Discussion groups on the Mekong river
3.30    Report back
4.00    Introduction to hydropower   
4.30    Reasons for hydropower development
5.00    DINER                        

8.00    Potential social and environmental impacts
8.30    Discussion groups on hydropower development
9.30    Report back
10.00    Public participation in planning
10.15    Discussion groups on public participation
11.00 Report back
11.50 CLOSING and LUNCH

Phnom Penh:
8.00    OPENING
8.10    Introduction by NGO Forum
8.40    The Mekong river
9.00    Introduction to hydropower
9.30    Plans for Cambodia
10.15    Social and environmental impacts
11.15    Findings from provincial workshops   
11.40    Public participation in EIA
12.00 LUNCH

1.15    Discussion groups on public participation
2.15    Report back
2.45    Discussion groups on strategies
3.45    BREAK
4.00    Report back
4.45    Conclusions
5.00    CLOSING

PARTICIPANTS

Kandal:
Provincial staff, Commune staff and villagers from Rorkakong Commune.

Kratie:
Provincial staff, District staff from Sambo and villagers from Sambo District

Stung Treng:
Provincial staff, District staff from Stung Treng, Sesan, Tha La Boriwat and Siempang. Villagers from all districts.

Phnom Penh:
CCDPI, PADEK, CARDS, ETAP, DFD, NTFP, PACT, ADHOC, JVC-TRC, CU, APHEDA, USG, CFDS, AFSC, CEPA, ASPHKS, HRDP, OXFAM UK&I, CIHR, OXFAM HK, CDRCP, KDFA, ERC, BDASE, HU, SAKTF, CWCACD


PROFILE OF HOST NGOS

Cambodian Women Children Arts and Crafts for Development (CWCACD)
CWCACD was established in 1996, with the objectives of reducing poverty amongst women, increasing human resources, protecting women's health, and developing Cambodian culture. Project activities are in Rorkakong Commune, Mok Kampoul District, Kandal province. Activities include gender, environmental education and savings/credit programmes

Khmer Women's Welfare Kratie (KWWA)
KWWA was established in 1993 with the objective of improving the situation of women in Kratie Province. Project activities are in Kratie District, Kratie Province. Activities include a credit programme, health education (vaccinations, children's health, community sanitation, aids awareness, health in pregnancy) and literacy training.

Culture and Environment preservation Association (CEPA)
CEPA was estsblished in April 1996. It's main objective is to promote awareness of environmental protection and natural resource management amongst students and the younger generation. Project activities are in Phnom Penh, Stung Treng, Kandal and Koh Kong. Activities include tree planting, mangrove reforestation, fisheries research, information sharing, preparation and disemmination of a monthly newsletter, operating a resource centre, initiating workshops on culture and environment and research on natural resource issues.


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- "Managing the Mekong: Cambodia Context" Presentation by Dr. Mok Mareth, Minister for the Environment, Phnom Penh

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