Vulnerability of Fisheries in Cambodia
by Mak Sithirith,
The NGO Forum on Cambodia
For the "Accounting for Development: Austrlia and the Asian Development Bank in the Mekong Region" Conference on in Sydney, Australia
22-24 June 2000
Cambodia is a country rich in natural resources. Cambodian people live close to the natural environment and rely on these resources for subsistence livelihoods. About 84% of Cambodian live in rural areas[1] and most of them are involved in agriculture, fishing and forestry which together account for 88% of total employment in Cambodia[2].
The rural people are the engine of agricultural production which accounting for 40 per cent GDP . Yet the living standards of rural people are very low. Approximately 43% of rural population live below the poverty line[3].
The importance of rice and fish for livelihoods of rural communities has remained unchanged in Cambodia. Fish is by far the most important source of protein, accounting for 80% of their annual protein intake of Cambodia’s population of 10.5 million[4]. Second only to rice, fisheries in Cambodia are the main staple of people's daily food security as well as strengthening the national economy[5].
Despite the importance of fisheries to the vast majority of Cambodians, these resources are under threat. Several factors have been seen to be contributing to fisheries destruction. These factors include: The natural resource management policy of Cambodian government and upstream development in the Mekong River System
a) The natural resource management policy of Cambodian government:
In Cambodia, the government has a policy of centralization and a commercialization of fisheries resources[6].. At the central level, the Fisheries Department awards concession right to fishery resources including Cambodia's richest fishery resource- the Great Lake Tonle Sap. The Fisheries Department focus on law enforcement, surveillance and control of fishing activities, including issuing fishing licences and collecting fees and taxes of people engaged in fishing activities even thought parts of the current fisheries law are no longer appropriate for the current context[7].
Before 1995, the Fisheries Department was not able to determine with any accuracy the quantity, the quality of Cambodia's fish catch because of a lack of knowledge and the absence of a proper data collection system. The Department radically underestimated the catch by up 5 or 6 times[8].
The current fisheries law was promulgated in 1987 under the socialist government. Since then, privatization of fisheries resources has developed, and enforcement and implementation of the law has been inadequate[9]. The restrictions in the law are mainly copied from a 1956 decree, which is too old to deal with the rapid change in the country economy[10].. The enforcement of the nation's fishing laws has been stymied by corruption and lack of resources. Therefore, overfishing has become an increasing concern in recent years, as the number of fish has steadily decreased to be at an all time low[11].
The large and middle scale fisher folk as well as small scale family fisher folk operate under the extensive regulation enforced by Fisheries Department. But over-fishing and destructive fishing practices are still undertaken by these user groups to maximize the catch from the common resource pool[12].. Enforcement of regulation by the Department of Fisheries in protecting the public resource has been very weak and compliance has been very poor[13].
The commercial fishing lot system in Cambodia began around 1864, based on the advice of the French protectorate authority[14].. The fishing lot system is only found in Cambodia and possibly in south Vietnam. In Cambodia, it has been in place for at least a 100 year[15]. The fishing lot system was revised in 1929[16] and it has not changed since[17].
While this is considered to be a tool to combat illegal fishing and produce revenue for government, has in fact fuelled illegal fishing, mainly by fishing lot owners intend on maximizing their profits. The system has incited social conflict with local people[18] as in many cases, local people's access to fisheries resources has been denied by powerful fishing lots[19] and commercial fishing has put pressure on fish stocks[20].
The Department of Fisheries holds power over fisheries resources at the central level and yet they do not have enough capacities at present to control and manage fishing practices and access to fisheries[24].. Neither is sustainable fishery management their goal as they are focused only on revenue collection and collection of data on fish catch.
b) Upstream Development in the Mekong River System:
Apart from generally encouraging privatization of natural resources in a manner similar to the destructive fishing lot system in Cambodia, the ADB is the principle institution promoting hydropower development in the Mekong. Within the Mekong River system Cambodia is a downstream country. Consequently, the construction of dams in the upstream reaches of the Mekong River and its tributaries also threaten Cambodia's fisheries
Since the 1950's nearly 6000 large and small dams and associated reservoirs and irrigation schemes were built in the Mekong watershed including nearly 700 in Cambodia, more than 600 in Laos, more than 600 in Vietnam and 4000 in Thailand[21]. This has led to fragmentation of aquatic habitats and the blocking off of fish spawning and nursery areas to migratory species.
The cumulative effects of these water management schemes on river flow levels potentially threaten the hydrological regime of the Mekong River[22]. In Cambodia, this particularly threatens the unique ecosystem of the Tonle Sap
Although there is already impact on the fisheries and ecology of the Mekong river and Tonle Sap by the hydropower development in the upstream countries, there has been little concern about impacts expressed in Cambodia. The recent constructed Yali Falls hydropower dam in Veit Nam provides a clear example of the impacts Cambodia can expect from upstream dams. The Yali Falls dam has had serious impacts on livelihoods of communities living downstream of the dam and has damaged the natural environment at least as far downstream as the Se San River confluence with the Mekong River and damage potentially extend further.
The impacts of the Yali Falls dam in Ratanakiri include flooding in rainy season and drought in dry season, water quality and human health problems, decline of fisheries resources and disrupted human livelihood system[23].
The abundant fish resources of Tonle Sap Great Lake are well known. The Mekong River Basin and Mekong tributaries also provide an abundant source of fish for people along the bank of the river. However, the fish stock in Cambodia is declining.
In the Mekong River system as a whole, there are 1200 known fish species[25].. Out of these, 500 species are reported to reside in the freshwater bodies of Cambodia during at least part of their life cycle. However, a recent study found only 100 species now present around the Tonle Sap and adjacent rivers[26]. Another source indicates that around 300 of the 500 fish species in the Great Lake Tonle Sap have diappeared[27].
In particularly, most of the large fish species that used to live in the Mekong River system have almost disappeared, although juveniles of these species are sometimes caught in very small numbers. The catches of medium sized species have also reduced. The large species of fish tend to produce at a relatively late age and big size. Consequently, over-fishing is certain, as many fish are caught before having a chance to reproduce[28].
As result of development in the Mekong River Basin over the last two or three decades, the ecology of Mekong River Basin is being destroyed. Deforestation in the Mekong River Basin and the construction of dams on the Mekong tributaries has led to increase soil erosion and sidementation in the downstream areas. This is particularly evident in the Great Lake which accounts for 9% of the whole Mekong River Basin. The life of the Great Lake Tonle Sap concerns Cambodia in particular but it also critical throughout the region[29].
The Great Lake is developing sand drift and its water quality is deteriorating, which affects fish stock. In 1962-63, the estimated sedimentation rate was 0.4 mm a year[30] and this rate has increased to 2-5 cm a year[31].. The Great Lake's flooded areas become smaller and the flooding times become shorter. Change such as thse especially threaten highly migratory fish species. The permanent water bodies have declined 8% from 1985 to 1993. The swamp faces similar threat that 89% has been threatened.
Over the 1980s and 1990s, there was a rapid reduction of the flooded forest. About 53% of the flooded forest around Tonle Sap has been destroyed, including 90% of the flooded forests in Chnok Tru, Kompong Chhnang province[32].
Before 1970, the inland fresh water fish catch in Tonle Sap was ten tons per km2.. The catch in 1988 was about half the level attained throughout the 1960. A few year before 1988, the total fresh water fish catch had declined by some 1,000 tons a year[33].
Compared to the 1960s, there has been an increase in effort, as middle-scale and family fisheries production has increased more than triple whereas the large scale fish catch appears to have been stable[34].
At the present time, there are too many people fishing directly and indirectly, because it is a cheap investment[35] and government officials working in fisheries get a low salary. More and more farmers become full or part time fishermen to complement food security in rice with fish and since rice production per capita becomes lower as the population grows at a high rate[36].
As population grows at a high rate and the natural resources are degrading, commercial pressure on the diminished resources has a great impact on the livelihoods of local people. The struggle for survival of local people has led to conflict with fishing lot owners. The conflict has happened as both parties compete for their interests. The interest of local people is for survival and the interest of fishing lot owners is the maximizing profits.
The state mechanism does not operate to protect the livelihoods of local people. The Fisheries Law does little to solve these conflicts, concentrating more on the fishing lot owners as a source of revenue for the national budget[37].
The concept of fisheries co-management has been proposed as a tool to improve fishery management and seems to be more promising approach[38].. Within this framework the resource users at different levels would make decisions and take subsequent actions safeguarding fish stock. An expansion of the fishing lot system to include more floodplain habitat and greater involvement of fishing communities in the management and operation of the lots is regarded a key in fishery management improvement[39].
Historically, co-management is not new . The socialist regime organized people to work together in a group known as the solidarity group (Krom Samaki). The fishing solidarity group had some similarities with co-management. Experience shows that it did not work and the system created loopholes for some people. The key in the co-management of fisheries is the sharing of power, responsibility and benefit. How can the system ensure equal power, responsibility and benefit between the grassroots and the higher levels is highly questionable.
The conflict with local people predominantly stems from expansion of the fishing lot. It is unclear what benefit local people will have even if they are involved in managing the expanded fishing lots, if they are owned by the powerful lot owners. There is still a question whether or not the expansion of the lot will bring about further conflict. To conclude, co-management needs to be studied further before being considered a solution to the problems of Cambodian's fishing industry.
1 Kingdom of Cambodia, Ministry of Planing, National Institute of Statistics: Population census 1998.
2 Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Planning and UNFPA; Demographic Survey of Cambodia 1993/94, October 1996.
3 World Bank, Cambodia: Poverty Profile 1993-94 Washington DC, June 1996.
4 Degen P. and Nao Thuok; Inland Fishery Management in Cambodia: Is the Concept of Community-Based Management Approoriate for Fishing Lots? MRC/Department of Fishery, June 1998, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
5 Van Zalinge N and Nao Thuok, Fisheries Management Issues in Cambodia: Contribution to the MRC Program for Fishery Management and Development Cooperation Technical Symposium 7-8 December 1998, MRC Secretariat, Phnom Penh. Cambodia.
6 TERRA, Watershed, People's Forum on Ecology: Wild Fisheries of the Mekong River Basin,Vol.4 No.3 March -June, 1999, Bangkok, Thailand.
7 Sithirith, M. 2000. Fishing Conflict in Battambang, March 2000, NGO Forum on Cambodia.
8 TERRA, 1999, op.cit.
9 NGO Forum et al. NGO Statement to the 2000 Consultative Group Meeting on Cambodia, Paris, 24-26 May 2000.
10 Tana, T.S. 1998. Bureaucratization the Management or Socializing the Communication for Better Concensus Between the Fishing Communitu and the Administrative System.
11 Cambodia Daily, 06.01.99:9, 13.04.99:10, 19.02.99:12.
12 Dennis, J.V. 1990. Kampuchea's Ecology and Resource Base: Natural Limitation on Food Production Strategies, New York.
13 Ahmed, M. and T. S. Tana. 1996. Management of Freshwater Capture Fisheries in Cambodia-Issues and Approaches.
14 Tana, T.S. 1998. op.cit.
15 Van Zalinge, N. P., Tana, T.S. and Thuok, N. 1998, op.cit
16 Sithirith, M. 2000. op.cit.
17 Degen P. and Thuok, N.1998. op . cit.
18 Sithirith, M. 2000. op. cit.
19 NGO Forum et al. 2000, op. cit.
20 Degen P. and Nao Thuok, 998. op. cit.
24 Van Zalinge, N. P., Tana, T.S. and Thuok, N. Where there is water, there is a fish? Fisheries issues in the Lower Mekong Basin from Cambodia Perspective. Contribution to the Mekong Panel at the Seventh Common Property Conference of the International Association of the Study of the Common Property, University of British Colombia, Vancouver, Canada, 10-14 June 1998
21 Thai Country Paper, 1996. Status and features of Water Resources and Irrigation Development in Thailand.
22 Van Zalinge et al.1998, op.cit.
23 A Study of the Downstream Impact of the Impact of Yali dam in Se San River Basin in Ratanakiri Province, Northeast Cambodia by the Fisheries Office of Ratanakiri and NTFP, May 2000.
25 Rainboth, W. J., 1996. Fishes of Cambodia Mekong. FAO Species identification guide for fishery purposes. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.
26 Van Zalinge, .N and Thouk N, Fishery Management Issues in Cambodia, Abstract, MRC/DoF/DANIDA, December, 1998
27 CEDAC; Abstracts of News on Agriculture, Environment and Natural Resource Management from Local Newspaper, October 1998.
28 Van Zalinge, N.P and Tana, T.S, Fisheries Management in the Tonle Sap. Contribution to the Workshop on Management of the Tonle Sap Ecosystem organized for World Bank/Cambodia National Environment Action Plan, September 1996, Siem Reap, Cambodia.
29 JICA, 1998. Executive Summary of the Report of the Study on Development and the Environment in the Mekong River Basin, June 1998, Tokyo, Japan.
30 MRC and UNDP; A Natural Resources Based Development Strategy for the Tonle Sap Area, Cambodia, Mekong River Commission Secretariat, June 1999.
31 Ministry of Environment, 1994. First Sate of Environment, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
32 Raksmey Kampuchea Daily, 27.03.98.
33 Curtis, G. 1989. Cambodia Country Profile: A Report Prepared for the Swedish International Development Authority.
34 Van Zalinge, N. P., Tana, T.S. and Thuok, N. 1998, op. cit.
35 TERRA, 1999. op. cit.
36 Sithirith, M. 2000, op.cit.
37 Sithirith, M. 2000. op. cit.
38 Degen P. and Thuok, N. 1998. op. cit.
39 Van Zalinge, N. P., Tana, T.S. and Thuok, N. 1998. op. cit.